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Search of THE SCOTCH-IRISH OR THE SCOT IN NORTH BRITAIN, NORTH IRELAND, AND NORTH AMERICA

Source Information: Hanna, Charles A. The Scotch-Irish: The Scot in North Britain, North Ireland, and North America Vol.1 New York, NY: G. P. Putnam, 1902.

Searched for :- [Burns] [Covenanters] [Emigrants] [Reformation] [Vikings]

PREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface
Chapter I The Scotch-Irish and the Revolution
Chapter II The Scotch-Irish and the Constitution
Chapter III The Scotch-Irish in American Politics
Chapter IV New England Not The Birthplace of American Liberty
Chapter V Liberty of Speech and Conscience Definitely Established in America By Men of Scottish Blood
Chapter VI The American People Not Racially Identical With Those of New England
Chapter VII American Ideals More Scottish Than English
Chapter VIII The Scottish Kirk and Human Liberty
Chapter IX Religion in Early Scotland and Early England
Chapter X Scottish Achievement
Chapter XI The Tudor-stuart Church Responsible For Early American Animosity to England
Chapter XII Who Are The Scotch-Irish?
Chapter XIII Scotland of To-day
Chapter XIV The Caledonians, Or Picts
Chapter XV The Scots and Picts
Chapter XVI The Britons
Chapter XVII The Norse and Galloway
Chapter XVIII The Angles
Chapter XIX Scottish History in The English Or Anglo-saxon Chronicle
Chapter XX From Malcolm Canmore to King David
Chapter XXI William The Lion
Chapter XXII The Second and Third Alexanders to John Baliol
Chapter XXIII Wallace and Bruce
Chapter XXIV John of Fordun's Annals of Wallace And Bruce xcviiirise and First Start of William Wallace
Chapter XXV From Bruce to Flodden
Chapter XXVI The Beginning of The Reformation
Chapter XXVII The Days of Knox
Chapter XXVIII James Stuart, Son of Mary
Chapter XXIX The Wisest Fool in Christendom
Chapter XXX Scotland Under Charles I
Chapter XXXI Scotland Under Charles II and The Bishops
Chapter XXXII Ireland Under The Tudors
Chapter XXXIII The Scottish Plantation of Down and Antrim
Chapter XXXIV The Great Plantation of Ulster
Chapter XXXV The Ulster Plantation From 1610 to 1630
Chapter XXXVI Stewart's and Brereton's Accounts of The Plantation of Ulster
Chapter XXXVII Church Rule in Ireland and Its Results
Chapter XXXVIII Londonderry and Enniskillen
Chapter XXXIX The Emigration. From Ulster to America

Burns

AMERICAN IDEALS MORE SCOTTISH THAN ENGLISH

"But the man behind is Knox. Would you see his monument? Look around. Yes: To this, our own land, more than any other, I am convinced must we look for the fullest outcome and the yet all unspent force of this more than royal leader, this masterful and moulding soul .... Carlyle has said: 'Scotch literature and thought, Scotch industry; James Watt, David Hume, Walter Scott, "But the man behind is Knox. Would you see his monument? Look around. Yes: To this, our own land, more than any other, I am convinced must we look for the fullest outcome and the yet all unspent force of this more than royal leader, this masterful and moulding soul .... Carlyle has said: 'Scotch literature and thought, Scotch industry; James Watt, David Hume, Walter Scott, Robert Burns. I find Knox and the Reformation at the heart's core of every one of those persons and phenomena; I find that without Knox and the Reformation, they would not have been. Or what of Scotland ?' Yea, verily; no Knox, no Watt, no Burns, no Scotland, as we know and love and thank God for: And must we not say no men of the Covenant; no men of Antrim and Down, of Derry and Enniskillen; no men of the Cumberland valleys; no men of the Virginian hills; no men of the Ohio stretch, of the Georgian glades and the Tennessee Ridge; no rally at Scone; no

AMERICAN IDEALS MORE SCOTTISH THAN ENGLISH

"This that Knox did for his nation, I say, we may really call a resurrection as from death. It was not a smooth business; but it was welcome, surely, and cheap at that price, had it been far rougher. On the whole, cheap at any price;--as life is. The people began to live: they needed first of all to do that, at what cost and costs so ever. Scotch Literature and Thought, Scotch Industry; James Watt, David Hume, Walter Scott, Robert Burns: I find Knox and the Reformation acting in the heart's core of every one of these persons and phenomena; I find that without the Reformation they would not have been."--Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes and Hero Worship, iv.

SCOTTISH ACHIEVEMENT

Of the second greatest poet of Britain, it may be said there is vastly more reason for believing him to have been of purely Celtic extraction than there is for asserting Shakespeare's genius to have been wholly Teutonic. It is possible, however, that Burns, also, was of mixed descent. Rare Ben Jonson, likewise, although himself born in England, was the grandson of an Annandale Scotchman.

It is a fact that Puritan ladies were taught to spin, on Boston Common, by Scottish immigrants from Northern Ireland; and the great textile industry was given impetus by the invention of carding and spinning machines by Alexander and Robert Barr, which machines were introduced by a Mr. Orr, also a New England Scotchman. And the inventor of the mule spinning machine was a Scot. Gordon McKay invented the sole-stitching that revolutionised shoemaking in New England. The first iron-furnace west of the Alleghany Mountains was erected by a Scotchman named Grant, in 1794. At this mill, the cannon-balls used by Perry in the battle of Lake Erie were made. John Campbell, a stalwart Ohio Scot, first employed the hot-blast in making pig-iron. The Scotch author is eminent in every line of literary production. We could rest our honors with Hume, Carlyle, Scott, and Burns, and hold a high place in the world of letters. Adam Smith was the first person to write of political economy as a science, which theme has been also treated by Samuel Baily, J. R. McCullough, Chalmers, and Alison. Scotland gave the literary world Barbour, Blind Harry, Gavin Douglas, Wyntoun, Dunbar, McKenzie, Wilson, Grant, Barrie, George MacDonald, and John Stuart Blackie ....

In sculpture, Scotland has given to England and America their finest artists. William Calder Marshall, and not an Englishman, won the prize offered by the British government for a design for the Wellington monument. Sir John Steele executed the colossal statue of Burns that adorns New York's beautiful park. John C. King, the New England sculptor, whose busts of Adams and Emerson are masterpieces of plastic art, and whose cameos of Webster and Lincoln are magnificent gems, was a Scot; as was Joel Hart, whose statues of Clay at Richmond and New Orleans are extensively admired. Crawford and Ward are of our blood; and where is there a Scot whose heart does not beat with pride in the knowledge that Scotch blood courses in the veins of Frederick Macmonnies? There is no end to Scotch painters. Sir David Wilkie was perhaps the most noted of British artists. Then there were Francis Brant and William Hart. Some of the works of Alexander Johnston are among the world's masterpieces. David Allah's pen drew the familiar illustrations to Burns's lyrics. There was an academy of art in Glasgow before there was one in London. Guthrie, MacGregor, Walton, Lavery, Patterson, Roche, and Stevenson all have been eminent painters. Gilbert Stuart, who left us portraits of prominent actors in early American history, was a Scot, as was E. F. Andrews, who has given America its best portraits of Jefferson, Martha Washington, and Dolly Madison, those which hang in the White House. Alexander Anderson was the first American wood-engraver, inventing, as he did, the tools used by those pursuing this art.

SCOTLAND OF TO-DAY

In this district are to be found the chief evidences in Scotland of the birth or residence of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Dumbartonshire is the reputed birthplace of St. Patrick, Ireland's teacher and patron saint. Elderslie, in Renfrewshire, is said to have been the birthplace of Scotland's national hero, William Wallace. Robert Bruce also, son of Marjorie, Countess of Carrick and daughter of Nigel or Niall (who was himself the Celtic Earl of Carrick and grandson of Gilbert, son of Fergus, Lord of Galloway), was, according to popular belief, born at his mother's castle of Turnberry, in Ayrshire. The seat of the High Stewards of Scotland, ancestors of the royal family of the Stuarts, was in Renfrewshire. The paternal grandfather of William Ewart Gladstone was born in Lanarkshire. John Knox's father is said to have belonged to the Knox family of Renfrew-shire. Robert Burns was born in Ayrshire. The sect called the "Lollards," who were the earliest Protestant reformers in Scotland, appear first in Scottish history as coming from Kyle in Ayrshire, the same district which afterwards furnished a large part of the leaders and armies of the Reformation. The Covenanters and their armies of the seventeenth century were mainly from the same part of the kingdom. Glasgow, the greatest manufacturing city of Europe, is situated in the heart of this district.

Covenanters

THE AMERICAN PEOPLE NOT RACIALLY IDENTICAL WITH THOSE OF NEW ENGLAND

from the very start; they were kinsfolk of from the very start; they were kinsfolk of the Covenanters; they deemed it a religious duty to interpret their own Bible, and held for a divine right the election of their own clergy. For generations their whole ecclesiastic and scholastic systems had been fundamentally

AMERICAN IDEALS MORE SCOTTISH THAN ENGLISH

In New England, until the Scotch came, the sole guardians of liberty were the Separatists, the Quakers, and the Baptists. The first, because of their liberal views, were forced to remove from Massachusetts to Connecticut and Maryland, and the others were driven into Rhode Island and New Jersey. In the central colonies, those who kept alive the sacred flame were found at first in Maryland, but later chiefly in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, where the Quakers had early settled and where afterwards came the Moravians, the Lutherans, the Huguenots, the Catholics, and the Covenanters. These two colonies became the only secure retreats for all the persecuted of Europe, of Britain, of New England, and of the Episcopalian colonies of the South. Here was the landing-place of more than three-fourths of the Protestant emigrants from Ireland, and here they lived, increased, spread out over the south and west, and carried into Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas their democratic principles of human equality, of the responsibility of the governor to the governed, and of the supremacy of conscience over all established forms of thought, government, or worship.

Twenty years before Massachusetts took her stand at all on this subject, there were eighteen manumission, or emancipation, societies in eastern Tennessee, organized by the Covenanters, the Methodists, and the Quakers of that region, which held regular meetings for a number of years in the interest of emancipation or abolitionism. In 1822 there were five or six abolition societies in Kentucky. In 1819 the first distinctively emancipation paper in the United States was published in Jonesborough, eastern Tennessee, by Elihu Embree, a Quaker, called the Manumission Intelligencer. In 1821 Benjamin Lundy purchased this paper, and published it for two years in Greenville, East Tennessee, under the title of the Genius of Universal Emantipation. Lundy was merely the successor of Embree. At and previous to this time, the Methodist Church in Tennessee, at its conferences, was making it hot for its members who held or who bought or sold slaves, by silencing or expelling them.

As the logical conclusion of the discussions in the last four chapters, and the underlying thought running through them all, it is affirmed as almost an undeniable proposition that the advanced theories and the liberal ideas, in reference to both political and religious liberty, which, like threads of gold, were woven into the institutions of the country and the life of the people, and which gave them their chief glory, were of Covenanter, and not of Puritan or Cavalier, origin. This is so manifestly true as to religious liberty that the reader has only to recall the facts already given in order to command his ready assent to the truth of the proposition. For it will be remembered that until after the coming of the Covenanters there was not one gleam of light in all the dreary regions dominated by the Puritans and the Cavaliers. The despotism and the gloom of intolerance reigned supreme. A narrow bigotry and superstition cast their blighting shadows over the minds of men. Notwithstanding the bold and never-ceasing teachings of the Covenanters, from the day of their arrival in the country until they had aroused the storm of the Revolution, so difficult was it to induce the Puritans and the Cavaliers to relax their deadly grasp on the consciences of men that eleven years passed away after the inauguration of hostilities in the colonies before universal religious liberty prevailed in the Cavalier State, and nearly sixty years before complete religious emancipation was accomplished in Massachusetts.

The struggles for political and personal liberty are always easily remembered. The glare and the thunders of war are never forgotten. But the quiet, the persistent, and the courageous warfare waged by the Covenanters, everywhere and at all times, for the right of conscience, while it was effecting a revolution as important for the happiness of mankind as the great one settled by arms, did not appeal to the senses and the imagination of men, and hence it has been but little noted by speakers or by historians.

Independence from doing their duty in the great contest of arms, but they did have a most important influence in shaping the institutions of the country, and in giving tone and coloring to its thought afterward. And in this second stage of the Revolution, these Covenanters, dwelling in large numbers in all the States south of New England, with their liberal and advanced ideas, learned in their bitter experience of nearly two centuries, and with their creed of republicanism, were ready to infuse their spirit and inject their ideas of equality into the constitutions, the institutions, and into the life of that vast region. Under this influence even aristocratic Cavalier Virginia became, as we have seen, the most democratic of all the States. Under this influence, also, the constitution of Tennessee was framed, which was pronounced by Mr. Jefferson the most republican in its spirit of all the American constitutions. And this same spirit pervaded the institutions of all the Southern States, excepting South Carolina. I do not withhold from Mr. Jefferson the high meed of praise he so richly merits for his magnificent work in behalf of liberal ideas and republican institutions in Virginia. But Mr. Jefferson was always a Covenanter in his opinions as to political and religious liberty. Besides this, we have seen that he would have failed in his great reforms, except for the powerful aid he received from the Covenanters.

THE SCOTTISH KIRK AND HUMAN LIBERTY

The extent to which the cause of the Covenanters was bound up with that of human liberty and opposed to the united despotism of king and prelate may be shown by the reproduction of the celebrated Queensferry Paper, for their approval of the revolutionary sentiments of which so many of the Scottish martyrs suffered death. The substance of the contents of this document, and the accompanying account of its origin, are copied from the appendix to the Cloud of Witnesses (15th edition, pp. 343-348)

SCOTTISH ACHIEVEMENT

"But we must speak of the more purely intellectual work of Ulstermen, in the walks of literature, science, and philosophy. It has been remarked that, though their predominant qualities are Scotch, they have not inherited the love of abstract speculation. Yet they have produced at least one distinguished philosopher in the person of Sir Francis Hutchison, professor of moral philosophy in the University of Glasgow in the last century, and, if we may follow the opinion of Dr. McCosh, the true founder of the Scottish school of philosophy. He was born at Saintfield, County Down, where his father was a Presbyterian minister. In natural science, Ulster can boast of Sir Hans Sloane, a native of Killyleagh, County Down; of Dr. Black, the famous chemist, a native of Belfast; of Dr. James Thompson and his son, Sir William Thompson, both natives of County Down; and of William Thomson and Robert Patterson, both of Belfast. In theology and pulpit oratory, Ulstermen have always taken a distinguished place. If Donegal produced a deistical writer so renowned as John Toland, Fermanagh reared the theologian who was to combat the whole school of Deism in the person of the Rev. Charles Leslie, the author of A Short and Easy Method with the Deists. The masterly treatise of Dr. William Magee, Archbishop of Dublin, On the doctrine of the atonement still holds its place in theological literature. He was an Enniskillener, like Plunket, and his grandson, the present bishop of Peterborough, is one of the most eloquent divines on the English bench. There is no religious body, indeed, in Ulster, that cannot point to at least one eminent theologian with a fame far extending beyond the province. The Presbyterians are proud of the reputation of the Rev. Henry Cooke, of Belfast; the Unitarians, of the Rev. Henry Montgomery, of Dunmurry, near Belfast; the Baptists of the Rev. Alexander Carson, of Tubbermore, County Derry, the author of the ablest treatise ever written on behalf of Baptist principles; the Methodists, of Dr. Adam Clarke, the learned commentator on the Scriptures, who was born at Maghera, in the same county; and the Covenanters, of the Rev. John Paul, who had all the logical acuteness of a schoolman. In oratory, Ulstermen are proud of the great abilities of Plunket, Cooke, Montgomery, Isaac Butt, and Lord Cairns. In pure scholarship they name Dr. Archibald Maclaine, chaplain at The Hague, and translator of Mosheim's History; Dr. Edward Hincks, of Killyleagh, County Down, the

THE TUDOR-STUART CHURCH RESPONSIBLE FOR EARLY AMERICAN ANIMOSITY TO ENGLAND

chief characteristic as a race; and in tracing their history down to this point it would seem as if we could see the working of some inscrutable principle of Divine compensation; for without the later presence in America of these descendants of the martyred Scottish Covenanters-- doubly embittered by the remembrance of the outrageous wrongs done their fathers and the experience of similar wrongs inflicted upon themselves and their families--the Revolution of 1776 would not have been undertaken, and could not have been accomplished.

SCOTLAND OF TO-DAY

WALLACE AND BRUCE

"It cannot be denied that this political and ecclesiastical feeling of nationality was mainly a defensive foreign policy on the part of Scotland. She knew perfectly well that her people were not as homogeneous in their origin as those of England; that while they might fight under one banner, and call themselves Scots, for the honour and independence of the kingdom, they were internally separated by the most startling differences and discords. In great international conflicts, like Bannockburn or Flodden, the Scottish Celt and the Scottish Teuton might combine to resist or assail a formidable opponent; but within the realm of Scotland itself the antagonism of race and the difference in their modes of life engendered the fiercest animosities, and made peace and security impossible along the line of the Gram-pians. The way in which the "Highland Host" went to work among the "It cannot be denied that this political and ecclesiastical feeling of nationality was mainly a defensive foreign policy on the part of Scotland. She knew perfectly well that her people were not as homogeneous in their origin as those of England; that while they might fight under one banner, and call themselves Scots, for the honour and independence of the kingdom, they were internally separated by the most startling differences and discords. In great international conflicts, like Bannockburn or Flodden, the Scottish Celt and the Scottish Teuton might combine to resist or assail a formidable opponent; but within the realm of Scotland itself the antagonism of race and the difference in their modes of life engendered the fiercest animosities, and made peace and security impossible along the line of the Gram-pians. The way in which the "Highland Host" went to work among the Covenanters of the western shires is a conspicuous instance of the utter absence of any feeling of kinship or inward national sympathy between the savage marauders of the northern glens and the industrious farmers and traders of the southern plains.

SCOTLAND UNDER CHARLES I.

Civil war now became inevitable. General Alexander Leslie was therefore appointed leader of the Covenanting army. He soon organized a force and equipped it for the field. The Covenanters seized the castles of Edinburgh, Dumbarton, and other strongholds; and before the king arrived at York, the whole of Scotland was in the hands of the Presbyterians. In the beginning of May, the king's fleet of twenty warships, and several smaller vessels, with 5000 troops on board, sailed into Leith Roads. But both sides of the Firth were so well defended that not a boat could land. Before long, the crowded condition of the transports, miserably victualled and watered, caused disease to break out, and many victims were carried off by death.

Meanwhile, the king, having mustered his army at York in the beginning of April, 1639, advanced to the Border, and encamped on Birks plain in the valley of the Tweed, about three miles above Berwick. The Covenanters, about twelve thousand strong, advanced to fight the king, and encamped June 1st on Dunse Law, a low hill lying near the Border town of Dunse, about six miles distant from the camp of the royal forces, and on the opposite side of the Tweed. In a few days, reinforcements increased the Presbyterian army to more than twenty thousand men. Around the sides of the hill were pitched the tents of the army, each regiment forming a cluster. The top of the hill was surmounted by forty cannon. A banner-staff was planted at each captain's tent-door, from which floated the Scottish colors, displaying not only the national arms, but also this inscription in golden letters--" For Christ's Crown and Covenant." The army was chiefly composed of Scotland's thoughtful and high-souled peasantry. Nearly a score of noblemen were present, mostly in the command of regiments, and each regiment had its minister--some of them ready and determined to take an active part in the fight against the bishops. One minister, Rev. Robert Baillie of Kilwinning, was accompanied by "half a dozen good fellows," furnished with pike and musket out of his own pocket. His servant rode after him, with a broadsword at his side. The minister himself bore a sword, and carried a brace of pistols at his saddle-bow.

Meanwhile, the Scotch Parliament met in June. After repealing all the acts which permitted churchmen to sit and vote in Parliament, it enacted that a Parliament should meet every three years, and appointed a permanent committee of members to act when Parliament was not sitting. During the spring and summer another Covenanter army also was organized, and it rendezvoused again at Dunse Law, 22,000 foot and 3000 horse, and again under command of General Alexander Leslie. This time the Scots decided not to wait and be invaded, but to march into England. Leaving Dunse Law, they advanced to Coldstream, where they crossed the Tweed. Marching slowly through Northumberland, they came to Newburn on the Tyne, about five miles above Newcastle. Here a crossing was forced, the English retreating to York, where the King's main army lay. On August 30th, the Scots took possession of Newcastle, of all Northumberland, and of Durham, and very peaceably made their abode in those parts for about the space of a year. The Covenanters again petitioned the king to listen to their grievances, and at the same time a number of English nobles petitioned him to summon a Parliament. Unable to fight the , he finally offered to negotiate with them, and also summoned the English Parliament to meet at Westminster on the 3d of November--a meeting which afterwards became famous as the Long Parliament. To this English Parliament the Londoners sent in a petition bearing fifteen thousand names, craving to have bishops and their ceremonies radically reformed. Seven hundred clergy of the Church of England sent in a petition and remonstrance to the same effect. An immense agitation against the bishops and the arbitrary course of the king now arose, and all England became inflamed.

Communications passed between the English Parliamentary party and the Covenanters. In August four English commissioners appeared before the general assembly which had convened at Edinburgh on the 2d. They expressed their appreciation of what the Covenanters had already done for the cause of liberty, and said they desired the same work might be completed in England, where they had already abolished the High Commission and Episcopacy, and expelled the bishops from the House of Lords. Therefore, they entreated the Covenanters to assist their oppressed brethren in England. After much discussion and largely through the influence of Johnstone of War-riston and his associates, it was agreed to assist the leaders of the Long Parliament. The English leaders proposed a civil league, but the Scots would listen to nothing but a religious covenant. The English suggested that toleration should be given to the Independents, but the Scots would tolerate nothing but a Presbyterian or democratic form of church government in either kingdom. After a long debate, the Solemn League and Covenant was placed before the Assembly, which met at Edinburgh in August, 1643, and unanimously adopted. All the parties to this Covenant bound themselves to preserve the Reformed religion in Scotland and to do their utmost to further its extension in England and Ireland; to endeavor to extinguish popery and episcopacy; to preserve the rights of the Parliament and the liberties of the three kingdoms; and to preserve and defend the king's person.

SCOTLAND UNDER CHARLES II. AND THE BISHOPS

Charles had given the earl of Montrose a commission authorizing him to raise troops and subdue the kingdom by force of arms; so he temporized with the commissioners and protracted the negotiations, urging Montrose to make him independent of the Presbyterians. But when the rising was crushed and Montrose hanged, Charles eagerly threw himself into the arms of the Covenanters, agreed to the terms of Parliament, embarked for Scotland, and landed near the mouth of the Spey on June 24, 1650. Although he had previously embraced Romanism, Charles now solemnly swore that he "would have no enemies but the enemies of the Covenant--no friends but the friends of the Covenant."

In October, 1666, the Council issued a fresh proclamation, which, under severe penalties, required masters to oblige their servants, landlords their tenants, and magistrates the inhabitants of their boroughs to attend regularly the Episcopal churches. Many were thus driven from their homes, their families dispersed, and their estates ruined. In the following November, Mr. Allan of Barscobe, and three other fugitives, who had been forced to seek a hiding-place in the hills of Galloway, ventured from their retreat and came to the Clachan of Dalry to procure some provisions. Here they encountered some soldiers who were about to roast alive an old man whom they had seized because he was unable to pay his church fines. Aided by some of their friends from the village, the Covenanters overpowered the soldiers, and rescued their victim. In the melee one of the soldiers was killed, and another wounded. The Covenanters, realizing that their lives were forfeited in any event, determined to remain in arms, and being joined by MacLellan, Laird of Barscobe, and some other gentlemen of the neighborhood, they soon mustered about fifty horsemen. Proceeding to Dumfries, they surprised and captured Sir James Turner himself. Others of the oppressed people joining them, they marched into Ayrshire. The greater part of the Covenanters, however, were poorly armed. Their most common weapon was a scythe set straight on a stave. With Colonel Wallace at their head the insurgents marched against Edinburgh, nine hundred strong.

After the Duke of Lauderdale, in 1667, had obtained the chief management of affairs in Scotland, there was a temporary cessation of persecution. A Presbyterian at heart himself, he did not at first proceed to so great cruelties as had been previously practised; and some of the most notorious persecutors were dismissed. By order of the king, an Act of Indulgence was passed by the Council, in 1669, more with the object of creating divisions than of affording relief. A limited liberty of preaching was given by this enactment to ministers who refrained from speaking against the changes in Church and State. Some accepted of this indulgence, and others refused; but those who accepted the relief it afforded were called "king's curates" by the zealous Covenanters, and were by them regarded as little better than the "bishops' curates." Other ministers, who refused this indulgence, began to preach in the fields. To them the people resorted in crowds. Sermons delivered under such circumstances produced a great effect. Many converts were made, and the zeal of the people went up to a high pitch of enthusiasm. Driven to madness by persecution, they came to these meetings fully armed. Watchmen were placed on the hills around. The preacher, with a Bible in his hand and a sword by his side, warned the people to fear spiritual more than temporal death. These appeals rendered them regardless of danger, and many bloody encounters took place between the soldiers and the Covenanters.

It was finally determined to crush the Western Presbyterians, or Whigs, as they were sometimes called, by armed force, and for this purpose at body of eight or ten thousand half-savage Highlanders was mustered, and quartered in the western Lowlands for a period of three months, accompanied by a force of regular troops, with field-pieces for attack, shackles for the prisoners, and thumb-screws for torture. This horde of clansmen was given full license and encouraged to rob, kill, torment, and outrage the Presbyterians at will. These Highlanders, the very scum of the country, savage in their natures and cruel in their dispositions, now spread over the Southwest, where they plundered and ravaged without hindrance. On information from the curates they would visit the houses of the Covenanters, empty their oats into the water, tramp their food into the dunghill, and set fire to their belongings. They robbed all whom they met, and those whom they suspected of having property concealed were forced to discover it by being held over a fire. To the defenceless women their behavior was unspeakable.

On the 29th of May, 1679, Mr. Robert Hamilton and some of his friends published a declaration at Rutherglen against all the persecuting acts of the Council and Parliament. Graham of Claverhouse, hearing of this, marched in search of those by whom the declaration was published. Hamilton, with one hundred and seventy foot and forty horse, came up to Claverhouse at a place called Drumclog. After a short preliminary engagement, Balfour with the horse and William Cleland with the infantry crossed a morass and attacked the dragoons, who were soon put to flight. The Covenanters killed forty on the field, and rescued Mr. John King, with about fourteen other prisoners.

Claverhouse fled to Glasgow, where he was pursued by the Covenanters. Failing to capture the city, they retreated to the town of Hamilton. Here they were joined by many country people, and all organized against the common enemy. But they were sadly lacking in arms and training; and through the ill advice of Mr. Hamilton it was determined not to admit into their ranks any one who would not condemn the Indulgence. This action caused a division, and prevented the Presbyterians from being able to raise an army of more than about four thousand men. The Covenanters awaited his approach on ground gently rising from the left bank of the Clyde, opposite Bothwell. Here a bridge, only twelve feet wide, spanned the river, which winds round the base of the hill on which the village is built. Monmouth occupied Bothwell and the level plain below, and, on the 22d of June, 1679, commenced the attack. Hackston of Rathillet, with three hundred men, placed among cottages and behind barricades, defended the bridge for some time with courage and success. At last their ammunition was expended, and Hamilton, when asked to send a fresh supply, ordered Hackston to withdraw from his position, "leaving the world to debate whether he acted most like a traitor, coward, or fool." Hackston obeyed, the royal army passed the bridge and charged the main body of the Covenanters, who were completely defeated and about twelve hundred taken prisoners. The soldiers then scoured the country and shot a great number suspected of being concerned in the rising.

During the five or six years following Bothwell Bridge the persecution was at its fiercest. The Duke of York--afterwards James II.--now came to Scotland, to urge on the work of murder. "There would never be peace in Scotland," he said, "till the whole of the country south of the Forth was turned into a hunting field." It seemed to give this particular Stuart great pleasure to watch the torments of tortured Covenanters. The country was laid under martial law, and neither age nor sex was spared. Prisoners were tortured until they were compelled to accuse themselves of crimes they had

never committed, and were then executed on their own confessions. The years 1684 and 1685 went far beyond the rest in cruelty and murder. They have since been known in Scotland as the "Killing Time." The bishops' soldiers were sent out over the country empowered to kill all Covenanters. Those whom they met were required to answer the following questions: "Was Bothwell Bridge rebellion?   Was the killing of the archbishop of St. Andrews murder?   Will you pray for the king?   Will you renounce the Covenant?" As a great majority of the western Lowlanders could not truthfully answer any of these questions in the affirmative, and a negative answer involved immediate death, the defenceless people were slaughtered by thousands.

The new king on his accession promised to maintain the Episcopal Church, and he submitted to be crowned in Westminster Abbey by the archbishop of Canterbury. A party, made up of the more zealous Protestants and the more determined Whigs, rightly fearing that he would prove a tyrant and a persecutor, began a feeble insurrection. The Earl of Argyle landed in Scotland to call the Covenanters to arms. The Duke of Monmouth, the natural son of Charles II., careless of religion but desirous of a crown, also raised the standard of insurrection in England. These attempts were both abortive. Argyle was captured and executed. Monmouth, defeated at Sedgemoor, suffered the same penalty, notwithstanding his relationship to the king. Many of his followers were butchered by Colonel Percy Kirke, who scoured the country with his "lambs." The prisoners, tried by Jeffreys at the "Bloody Assizes," were executed in such numbers as to excite terror and consternation throughout the kingdom. This judge declared that he could "smell a Presbyterian forty miles," and boasted that he had hanged more traitors than all his predecessors since the Conquest.

The accession of James brought no immediate relief to the persecuted Covenanters of Scotland. An Episcopal farmer named Gilbert Wilson had two daughters--Agnes, aged thirteen, and Margaret, aged eighteen. These girls attended conventicles, and had become Presbyterians. Arrested and condemned to death, their father succeeded in procuring the pardon of the younger on paying L100 sterling. But the elder daughter and an old woman named Margaret MacLaughlan were bound to stakes on the seashore that they might be drowned by the rising tide. After the old woman was dead, and the water had passed over Margaret Wilson's head, the latter was

The Rev. James Renwick, a young man of five-and-twenty, minister of the persecuted Cameronian societies, had preached with great power against those who took advantage of the Indulgence. But his career was short; for, on the 17th of February, 1688, having been apprehended, he suffered the penalty of death. Renwick was the last of the Scottish martyrs. David Houston came very near to obtaining that honor. Arrested in Ireland, he was brought to Scotland to be tried. On the 18th of June, near Cumnock, in Ayrshire, his military escort was attacked and defeated by a body of Covenanters. Mr. Houston was released, and evaded recapture until King James was driven from his throne.

In March, 1689, a Convention of the Estates was held in Edinburgh, William, by his own power, dispensing with the laws which deprived Presbyterians of their votes. The Covenanters, in order to protect the members who belonged to their party, assembled in arms, many of them carrying the weapons they had used at Bothwell Bridge. Conspicuous among these brave men was William Cleland, who when only seventeen years of age had led the infantry to victory in the charge at Drumclog. Distinguished as a poet and a mathematician, he was brave even to recklessness. Now he sought to meet Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, in mortal conflict. But Dundee, finding that the majority of the Convention could neither be forced nor flattered to support the claims of the House of Stuart, and fearing to be cut in pieces by Cleland, left Edinburgh, and fled to the Highlands. There the mass of the population professed a religion which was a strange mixture of paganism and popery. They had no love for either king or country, but were loyal to their clans and attached to their chieftains, who ruled them as petty sovereigns. Some of these chieftains, fearing they might now be called on to restore what they held of the confiscated estates of the martyred Argyle, were ready to rebel against the authority of William. Thus Dundee was easily able to raise an army of Highlanders. He took the field at once, and defeated General Mackay, on the 27th of July, at Killiecrankie, but was himself slain in the battle. He was succeeded as commander-in-chief by Colonel Canon, who continued the rebellion.

A regiment of Covenanters, under William Cleland, now lay not far off at Dunkeld, placed there among their enemies by some traitor, that they might be cut to pieces. They had been deserted by the cavalry, had been supplied with a barrel of figs instead of gunpowder, and were in all only seven hundred strong; while Canon led to the attack five thousand Highlanders, who had scented blood and were flushed with victory. Cleland drew up his men with great skill behind some walls near a house which belonged to the marquis of Athol. Although surrounded on all sides, the Covenanters repulsed repeated attacks of the enemy. Again and again the Highlanders came on with fearful fury, but the Presbyterians fought with the energy of despair. When their bullets were gone, they used bits of lead cut off the roof of Athol's house. Galled by the fire of the enemy, who shot at them from some dwellings in the vicinity, they sallied out, secured the doors, and set these buildings on fire, so that many of their occupants perished in the flames. After a fearful conflict, the Highlanders at length retreated, and the Covenanters sang a psalm of triumph. The war was now

CHURCH RULE IN IRELAND AND ITS RESULTS

But, notwithstanding all impediments, the Commissioners proceeded diligently with their work. From Coleraine they went to Derry, and from Derry to the Presbyterian parts of county Donegal. They ventured even as far as Enniskillen without meeting any armed band of rebels. In some places the natives fled at their approach, having a superstitious fear of their power, and imagining that it was by the sword Covenanters were determined to "extirpate" popery.

The marquis of Montrose, at the head of the Highland royalists and their Irish allies, now took the field and gained many victories. Having captured Aberdeen, his Irish forces were there distinguished for their great cruelty. They compelled those whom they killed to strip previously, lest their clothes, spoiled in the act of murder, might be rendered less serviceable to the murderers. "The wyf durst not cry nor weep at her husband's slauchter befoir her eyes, nor the mother for the son, nor the dochter for the father; which, if they war heard, then war they presently slayne also." Formerly, when acting for the Covenanters, Montrose oppressed Aberdeen because it inclined to the royal cause; now he murdered its inhabitants because they supported the very principles he had formerly punished them for opposing.

Emigrants

THE SCOTCH-IRISH AND THE REVOLUTION

THE term " Scotch-Irish " is peculiarly American, and in tracing its origin we have, epitomized, the history of the people to whom it is now applied. The word seems to have come into general use since the Revolution, having been first taken as a race-name by many individuals of a very large class of people in the United States, descendants of emigrants of Scottish blood from the North of Ireland. The name was not used by the first of these emigrants, neither was it generally applied to them by the people whom they met here. They usually called themselves " Scotch," just as the descendants of their former neighbors in Northern Ireland do to-day; and as do some of their own descendants in this country, who seemingly are averse to acknowledging any connection with Ireland. The Quakers and the Puritans generally spoke of them as "the Irish," and, during the Revolutionary period, we find a large and influential body of these people joined together at Philadelphia, in the formation of a patriotic association to which they gave the distinctively Irish title, " The Society of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick."

The appellation " Scotch Irish " is not, as many people suppose, an indication of a mixed Hiberno-Scottish descent; although it could be properly so used in many cases. It was first appropriated as a distinctive race-name by, and is now generally applied to, the descendants in America of the early Scotch Presbyterian emigrants from Ireland. These Scotch people, for a hundred years or more after 1600, settled with their wives and families in Ulster, in the North of Ireland, whence their descendants, for a hundred years after 1700,—having long suffered under the burdens of civil and religious oppression imposed by commercial greed and despotic ecclesiasticism, —sought a more promising home in America.

" Nothing but a sectional vanity little less than insane, could lead to the assertion that Congregationalism was the basis of Presbyterianism in this country, and that the Presbyterian Church never would have had an existence, except in name, had not the Congregationalists come among us from New England. The number of Puritans who settled in New England was about twenty-one thousand. If it be admitted that three-fourths of these were Congregationalists, (which is a large admission,) it gives between fifteen and sixteen thousand. The Presbyterian emigrants who came to this country by the middle of the last century, were between one and two hundred thousand. Those from Ireland alone, imperfect as are the records of emigration, could not have been less than fifty thousand, and probably were far more numerous. . . .

THE AMERICAN PEOPLE NOT RACIALLY IDENTICAL WITH THOSE OF NEW ENGLAND

These were the Scots of North Britain and North Ireland, a composite race, even at that time having in the organic make-up of each individual a combination of the several racial elements which were almost identical with those now forming the present collective population of America, and from which the American of the future is gradually being evolved. Theirs was the one representative and typical race in America with which all others are coming more and more to conform. That is to say, these Attacot-Goidelic-Cymro-Anglo-Norse-Danish Scots of colonial times, these Celto-Teutonic emigrants to America of the eighteenth century, combined in their individual bodies the physical attributes of the Angle, the Gael, the Norse, and the Brython. In their veins was already blended the blood of the various peoples which in the past hundred years have been pouring millions of individuals into the race alembic called America; and to a far greater extent than any of their neighbors were these Scottish emigrants of the eighteenth century the true prototypes of the typical American of the twentieth.

"A good deal of surprise was expressed at the Congress [of the Scotch-Irish Society of America, held in 1889] that a history of the Scotch-Irish had never been attempted; but we do not have to seek far for the reason. There is ample material from which to speak in a general way of their origin and of their existence in Ireland, but when we come to their emigration to America, excepting the causes which led to it, it is meagre in the extreme. Coming from one part of Great Britain to another, no record has been preserved of their arrivals as would have been the case had they been of alien origin; and all we know is that while a large majority came to Pennsylvania, others settled in Virginia and the Carolinas. The country along the Atlantic coast was then comparatively thickly settled, and the Scotch-Irish took up their abodes on the outskirts of civilization. This was not because the Quakers sent them there, as has been asserted, to protect their own settlements from the Indians, or because the Scotch-Irish did not wish to live near the Quakers, who were continually finding fault with them, but far the same reason that now takes the emigrants to the West,---i. e., because there good land is cheap, and large families can be supported at a small expense. They took with them their religion and their schools, and those in Pennsylvania extended their settlements across the mountains and down the valley into Maryland and Virginia. There they met with their brethren from Virginia and Carolina, and penetrated into the country now included in the States of Kentucky and Tennessee. Excepting in a general way the records of this emigration are difficult to trace, and are only found by examining old deeds, wills, and in family tradition.

"It must also be remembered that in no way, in the same sense of the word, did the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians settle a colony as the Puritans settled Massachusetts, the Quakers Pennsylvania, the Catholics Maryland, or the Episcopalians Virginia. They belonged to a later wave of emigration than any of the above, and when they arrived on this side of the Atlantic, governments were firmly established. The consequence is that there are no early governmental records that can be quoted as giving expression to their views. Besides this, the worldly condition of many of the emigrants was not such as would permit them to take an active part in political affairs, as the elective franchise was then limited by a property qualification, and some of those who might have claimed the right to vote were too deeply engaged in providing for their families to take an active part in politics. It was not, therefore, until they gained a foothold, and by their thrift, energy, and enterprise made their settlements important, that they exercised any influence in colonial affairs. When this point was gained they brought into public life an element directly antagonistic to the established order of things, and no one can deny that they were instrumental in bringing about the War for Independence, which they loyally supported. What the result of their influence would have been in Kentucky and Tennessee, where they were pioneer settlers, had it not been for the Revolution, we can only surmise. After that, civil and religious liberty were such cardinal principles of government, that it is not safe to attribute them to any one class. The material for the history of the Scotch-Irish in this country we fear has been largely destroyed. Some portion of it may yet exist in private letters, in church records, and in the diaries that some of their ministers wrote while travelling from one settlement to another. Much can also be accomplished by preparing memoirs, as full of original material as possible, of early settlers in various parts of the country."--Frederick D. Stone, in The Pennsylvania Magazine, January, 1890.

(Colonial Records, vol. xiv., p. 336). At that time a large part of the frontier inhabitants were not entered on the tax-lists (see Proud's History of Pennsylvania, vol. ii., p. 275, note). Delaware formed part of Pennsylvania prior to 1776, and was largely overrun by the Scotch-Irish before they reached the Susquehanna valley. A considerable part of western Maryland was settled by Scottish emigrants, as well as Cecil and Somerset counties on the Eastern Shore, and many districts around Baltimore. Jefferson states in his Autobiography (p. 31), that in 1776 a majority of the inhabitants of Virginia were Dissenters (at that time chiefly Presbyterians and Baptists), and as one-fourth of the total white population was in the upper country and west of the mountains (see Virginia Militia returns in 1782, annexed to chapter ix., Jefferson's Notes on Virginia), and that fourth almost to a man of Scottish ancestry, we may safely conclude that of the whole white population those people comprised nearly one-fourth. Williamson (History of North Carolina, vol. ii., p. 68) says that the Scottish race was the most numerous in the northwestern part of Carolina; and we know that they comprised nearly the whole of the population of Tennessee (then part of North Carolina). Ramsay says they were more numerous than any other race in South Carolina (History of South Carolina, vol. i., p. 20); and they likewise formed, if not a majority, at least a controlling element in the population of Georgia. To-day their descendants in the Carolinas, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, and West Virginia form the most influential and presumably the most numerous element in the white population of those States; and in all probability the same thing is true of the native-born population of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.

AMERICAN IDEALS MORE SCOTTISH THAN ENGLISH

SCOTTISH ACHIEVEMENT

"Ulster claims the sculptor, Patrick McDowell; and Crawford, whose works adorn the Capitol at Washington, was born, we believe, at sea, his parents being emigrants from the neighborhood of Ballyshannon, County Donegal. But we cannot remember a single painter, or musical composer, or singer, who belongs to Ulster. In the art of novel-writing there is William Carleton, already referred to, the most realistic sketcher of Irish character who has ever lived, and who far excels Lever, and Lover, and Edgeworth in the faithfulness of his pictures, though he fails in the broader representations of Hibernian humor. No one has so well sounded the depths of the Irish heart, or so skilfully portrayed its kinder and nobler feelings. Ulster was never remarkable for pathos. Carleton is an exception; but he belonged to the ancient race, and first saw the light in the home of a poor peasant in Clogher, County Tyrone. The only other novel-writers that Ulster can boast of-- none of them at all equal in national flavor to Carleton--are Elizabeth Hamilton, the author of The Cottagers of Glenburnie, who lived at the beginning of this century; William H. Maxwell. the author of Stories of Waterloo; Captain Mayne Reid, the writer of sensational tales about Western America; Francis Browne; and Mrs. Riddle, the author of George Geith. In dramatic literature, Ulster can boast of George Farquhar, the author of The Beaux' Stratagem, who was the son of a Derry clergyman, and of Macklin, the actor as well as the author, known to us by his play The Man of the World. The only names it can boast of in poetry are Samuel Ferguson, the author of The Forging of the Anchor; William Allingham, the author of Laurence Bloomfield, with two or three of lesser note."

THE TUDOR-STUART CHURCH RESPONSIBLE FOR EARLY AMERICAN ANIMOSITY TO ENGLAND

Yet, notwithstanding the fact that the Scots saved Ireland to William, and made it possible for him to succeed to the English crown, the measure of their cup of persecution was not yet filled; and for more than half a century afterwards the British Government, chiefly through the Episcopal Establishment, continued to run up a debt of hatred with these Scottish emigrants--a debt that accumulated rapidly during the first years of the eighteenth century, and the evidences of which were handed down from father to son and added to in each succeeding generation. After 1689, it received its first fresh increments in Ireland by the passage of certain Parliamentary acts, tending to the restriction and resulting in the destruction of the woollen industry; they being the final ones in a series of discriminating enactments which began at the Restoration in favor of the English manufacturers as against those of Ireland.

Mr. Robert Slade, Secretary to the Irish Society of London in 1802, who had been sent to Londonderry to inspect the property of that Society, in the report of his journey writes as follows: "The road from Down Hill to Coleraine goes through the best part of the Cloth-workers' proportion, and was held by the Right Hon. Richard Jackson [he was nominated for Parliament by the town of Coleraine in 1712], who was the Society's general agent. It is commonly reported in the country, that, having been obliged to raise the rents of his tenants very considerably, in consequence of the large fine he paid, it produced an almost total emigration of them to America, and that they formed a principal part of that undisciplined body which brought about the surrender of the British army at Saratoga." This undoubtedly refers to the emigration of those colonists who, in 1718-19, founded the town of Londonderry, New Hampshire, from which place were recruited Stark's Rangers, who fought the battle of Bennington, and also many of those who took part in the battles which led to Burgoyne's surrender. Five ship-loads, comprising about one hundred and twenty families. sailed from Ulster in the summer of 1718, reaching Boston on August 4th. Here they were not long permitted to remain by the Puritan Government, owing to the fact that they had come from Ireland, but were granted a portion of the township in which they afterwards built the town of Londonderry, the site then being far out on the frontier· These emigrants were accompanied by four ministers, among whom was the Reverend James Macgregor. He had been ordained at Aghadoey in 1701, and served as their first minister in America. Their motives in emigrating may be gathered from a manuscript sermon of Mr. Macgregor's, addressed to them on the eve of their embarkation. These reasons he states as follows: "1. To avoid oppression and cruel bondage. 2. To shun persecution and designed ruin. 3. To withdraw from the communion of idolaters. 4. To have an opportunity of worshipping God according

Dr. Charles Janeway Stille, in his work on Major-General Anthony Wayne and the Pennsylvania Line in the Continental Army, in commenting on this passage speaks as follows: "A curious error has been fallen into by many historians, including Mr. Bancroft, in speaking of the Pennsylvania Line, that 'it was composed in a large degree of new-comers from Ireland.' . . . These writers are evidently thinking of the characteristic qualities of the Celtic Irishman in war; but there were not, it is said on good authority [i.e., Dr. William H. Egle and John Blair Linn, editors of the Pennsylvania Archives], more than three hundred persons of Irish birth (Roman Catholic and Celtic) in the Pennsylvania Line. Two-thirds of the force were Scotch-Irish, a race with whose fighting qualities we are all familiar, but which are quite opposite to those which characterize the true Irish Celt. Most of them were descendants of the Scotch-Irish emigrants of 1717-1730, and very few of them were 'new-comers.'" In making the statement last quoted, Dr. Stille evidently overlooked the large emigration of Scotch-Irish from Belfast to Pennsylvania which took place in 1772-73. These emigrants left Ulster with a bitter animosity to England, brought on in a large measure by the same causes which afterwards led to the Protestant Irish Rebellion Of 1798.

WHO ARE THE SCOTCH-IRISH?

The two counties which have been most thoroughly transformed by this emigration are the two which are nearest Scotland, and were the first opened up for emigrants. These two have been completely altered in nationality and religion. They have become British, and in the main, certainly Scottish. Perhaps no better proof can be given than the family names of the inhabitants. Some years ago, a patient local antiquary took the voters' list of county Down "of those rated above L12 for poor-rates," and analyzed it carefully. There were 10,028 names on the list, and these fairly represented the whole proper names of the county. He found that the following names occurred oftenest, and arranged them in order of their frequency: Smith, Martin, M'Kie, Moore, Brown, Thompson, Patterson, Johnson, Stewart, Wilson, Graham, Campbell, Robinson, Bell, Hamilton, Morrow, Gibson, Boyd, Wallace, and Magee. He dissected as carefully the voters' list for county Antrim, in which there were 9538 names, and found that the following were at the top: Thompson, Wilson, Stewart,

SCOTLAND OF TO-DAY

The Picts or Caledonians, who lived in the country at the time of its conquest by the Romans, do not appear to have formed a strong element of the actual population of the Scottish Lowlands. The inhabitants of that part of the country seem for the most part to be of British and Anglo-Celtic race. The line which separated the Britons from the Picts runs, approximately, across the isthmus of the Clyde and Forth; the ancient wall of Antoninus thus marking an ethnological frontier no less than a political one. But Angles and Britons were compelled to share their territory with emigrants of various races, including the Scots of Ireland, Frisians, Northmen, and Danes. "At some places," says Reclus, "and more especially along the coast, people of different origin live in close contact with each other, and yet remain separate. Their blood has not mingled; habits, customs, and modes of thought and action have remained distinct. Along the whole of the coast, on that of the German Ocean, no less than on that of the Irish Sea, we meet with colonies of fishermen, some of whom claim descent from the Northmen, whilst others look upon the Danes as their ancestors. There are even colonies which tradition derives from Flanders. Several of the maritime villages consist of two portions like the towns on the coasts of Catalonia, Liguria, and Sicily, the upper part being inhabited by Saxon artisans and agriculturists, while the lower part forms the 'Marina' of Scandinavian fishermen. These various elements of the population have, however, become fused in the greater part of the country. Physically the Scotchman resembles the Norwegian, and this is not solely due to a similarity of climate, but also to the numerous unions between Scandinavian invaders and the daughters of the country. The languages of the two countries also possess more features in common than was formerly believed. The Scotch speak English with a peculiar accent which at once betrays their origin. Their intonation differs from that of the English, and they suppress certain consonants in the middle and at the end of words. They still employ certain old English terms, no longer made use of to the south of the Tweed, and, on the strength of this, patriotic Scotchmen claim to speak English with greater purity than their southern neighbors. Amongst the many words of foreign derivation in common use, there are several French ones, not only such as were introduced by the Normans, but also others belonging to the time when the two peoples were faithful allies, and supplied each other with soldiers.

THE BRITONS

"With the retreating emigrants, the last semblance of independence departed from the Britons of the north; and upon the death of their king Donald, who was probably a descendant of Kenneth's daughter, Constantine the Second experienced little difficulty in procuring the election of his own brother Donald to fill the vacant throne. Henceforth a branch of the MacAlpin family supplied a race of princes to Strathclyde; and although for another hundred years the Britons of that district remained in a state of nominal independence, they ceased to exist as a separate people, appearing, on a few subsequent occasions, merely as auxiliaries in the armies Of the Scottish kings."--Scotland under her Early Kings, vol. i., P. 54.

THE NORSE AND GALLOWAY

It has usually been assumed by modern historians, founding on George Chalmers, that there were repeated invasions of Galloway from Ireland during the seventh and eighth centuries, and that this district was then, like Argyle in the sixth, largely colonized by emigrants from Ulster. This assumption has been in a great measure refuted by Mr. Skene, and as the question is one of considerable interest at this point, it will not be amiss to give his argument some consideration.

The evidences of a considerable Gaelic admixture in the blood of the early southwestern Scotchmen are also shown in their place-names and surnames. This is particularly the case in Ayrshire, which was the native county of the first emigrants to Antrim and Down in the seventeenth century. To again quote the author of the History of the County of Ayr (vol. i., pp. 9, 16, 17):

THE ANGLES

This account is probably without much foundation in fact. See p. 330, note 3. |F|R13|rSee English Chronicle, Anno 1072. 14. The form in which the influence of the Conquest was first felt in Scotland, was by a steady migration of the Saxon people northward. They found in Scotland people of their own race, and made a marked addition to the predominance of the Saxon or Teutonic element. About the year 1068 there came among these emigrants a group whose flight from England, and reception in the court of Malcolm, make a turning-point in history. Edgar, the AEthe-ling, the heir of the Saxon line of kings, came over, bringing with him his mother and two sisters, and such a body of retainers as an exiled court might command. One of the sisters, Margaret, was afterwards married to Malcolm; and thus it behoved the king of Scotland, whether from chivalrous sympathy or from self-interest, to be the champion of the Saxon claims, and the Conqueror's enemy.--Burton, History of Scotland, vol. i., p. 373.

FROM MALCOLM CANMORE TO KING DAVID

Next to the Picts was the kindred race of Gaelic Scots of the western Highlands, descendants of the Dalriad emigrants from Ireland, who had a written Gaelic language. These Scots had perhaps become so largely

There was one Alan le Fenwick, connected, no doubt, with the parish in this county. of that name, who swore fealty to Edward I. It is rather surprising that neither the Kennedies, a very extensive and old Celtic clan in Carrick, nor the Boyds, are mentioned amongst the foregoing. Whether Vestiarium Scoticum be a forgery or not, the families enumerated are well known to have flourished in the Lowlands; and, indeed, most of them are in existence at this moment. It is obvious, therefore, that the Celtic population, at least the chiefs, had been superseded to a great extent. In Ayrshire, as already stated, the mass of the inhabitants, were purely Celtic; but, as in other districts, the bulk of the property passed into the hands of Norman and Saxon emigrants, with whose followers the towns and villages were crowded. This infusion of foreign blood was not effected without some difficulty. The Celtic population were greatly opposed to the new system, and they broke out into frequent insurrections. When William was made prisoner at Alnwick in 1174, a general rising took place against the strangers, who were compelled to take shelter in the king's castles. During the reigns of Edgar, Alexander 1., David I., and Malcolm IV., various disturbances occurred in consequence of the prejudices entertained by the old against the new race. The repeated irruptions of the Galwegians, whose territory included not only Carrick but Kyle and Cuninghame, at the commencement of the reign of David I., must of course have involved what now constitutes Ayrshire in the struggle. On the captivity of William, Galloway rose in revolt, slew the English and Normans, expelled the king's officers, and destroyed his castles.

The Saxon language, which, as we have seen, was previously spoken in the east of Scotland, and partially in the south, was first introduced at the court, in compliment to the queen, in the region of Malcolm Canmore. Under Edgar, the Saxon mania made still greater strides. Large bodies of emigrants were settled throughout the kingdom, both north and south of the Forth.--Paterson, History of the County of Ayr, vol. i., p. 18.

THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION

noteworthy fact in connection with the history of the Reformation in Scotland that most of its leaders and armies came from the western Lowlands, chiefly from those districts in which Wallace and Bruce had lived and raised their armies more than two centuries before. Especially interesting is this fact to him who studies the history of the transplanted Scot in Ireland and America; for most of the Scottish emigrants to those countfides emigrated from that part of Scotland.

THE SCOTTISH PLANTATION OF DOWN AND ANTRIM

The names of the emigrants are intensely Scottish. They began to cross in May, 1606. Persons of substance generally took out letters of denization soon after they came to Ireland, and sometimes before leaving Scotland. The following received such letters of denization in 1617 (Calendar of Patent Rolls, James I., pp. 326, 339), the majority of them having settled on Sir Hugh Montgomery's estates probably ten years prior to that date:

THE GREAT PLANTATION OF ULSTER

The settlement made by Hugh Montgomery and James Hamilton in 1606 opened up the county of Down to Scottish emigrants. They took possession of the whole of the north of the county, but they were satisfied with the arable lands which they found there and did not intrude on the hill-country of the southern baronies, which therefore remained Irish and Roman Catholic. To the west of the county the Scots were met by the English colony which

Chichester had founded at Belfast, and which spread up the river Lagan, along both its banks, towards Hillsborough, on the county Down side, and far into county Armagh on the west. Their common Puritanism formed a bond of union between these English and Scottish colonists. It made them unite and form into communities wherever they met, whether on the banks of the Lagan or northward throughout the length and breadth of county An-trim, when it was opened up to settlers by Sir Arthur Chichester along the shores of Belfast Lough, and by Macdonnell northward to the Giant's Causeway. The only district of this county not thoroughly colonized was the highlands along the northeast shore. Then came James's great scheme of colonization in 1610, which threw open the other six counties, for English and Scottish settlers. In some of these counties, and in some parts of them, the settlements were successful; in others they failed to take root. In Armagh, the British colony took firm hold, because, as soon as the county was opened up, settlers flocked into it across the borders from Down, and in even greater numbers from the English colony in Antrim. On the other hand, the "plantation" of Cavan was, comparatively speaking, a failure. In county Tyrone, the British settlers did not invade the mountainous country on the borders of Londonderry county, but contented themselves with the finer lands in the basin of the Mourne, and on the shores of LoughNeagh and along the streams which flow into it. Londonderry county was during the early years of the settlement left very much to itself by the "Irish Society of London," which kept its contract largely in the direction of drawing its rents--an operation which is still performed by the London Companies, the valuation of the Londoners' property being stated in the Government return for 1887 at L77,000 per annum. At the mouths of the two rivers which drain the county, however, the London Society founded the towns of Londonderry and Coleraine, and these as time went on became ports by which emigrants entered and spread all over the fertile lands of the county. In Donegal the British only attempted to colonize the eastern portion; while in Fermanagh the Scots seemed to be so little at home that they handed over their lands to the English, who here established a strong colony, from which have sprung some of the best-known names among the English in Ireland. Into these districts of Ulster both English and Scottish emigrants, but especially the latter, continued to stream at intervals during the whole of the seventeenth century.

The north of Ireland is now very much what the first half of the seventeenth century made it. North Down and Antrim, with the great town of Belfast, are English and Scottish now as they then became, and desire to remain united with the countries from which their people sprang. South Down, on the other hand, was not "planted," and it is Roman Catholic and Nationalist. Londonderry county too is Loyalist, for emigrants poured into it through Colernine and Londonderry city. Northern Armagh was peopled with English and Scottish emigrants, who crowded into it from Antrim and Down, and it desires union with the other island. Tyrone county is all strongly Unionist, but it is the country around Strabane, which the Hamiltons of Abercorn and the Stewarts of Garlies so thoroughly colonized, and the eastern portion, on the borders of Lough Neagh, around the colonies founded by Lord Ochiltree, that give to the Unionists a majority; while in eastern Donegal, which the Cunninghams and the Stewarts "settled" from Ayrshire and Galloway, and in Fermanagh, where dwell the descendants of the Englishmen who fought so nobly in 1689, there is a great minority which struggles against separation from England. Over the rest, even of Ulster, the desire for a separate kingdom of Ireland is the dream of the people still, as it was three centuries ago. In many parts of Ireland which were at one time and another colonized with English, the colonists became absorbed in

CHURCH RULE IN IRELAND AND ITS RESULTS

ship of one hundred and fifty tons burden built near Belfast. In this frail bark, named The Eagle's Wing, one hundred and forty Presbyterians set sail from Loch Fergus, on the 9th of September, 1636, ready to encounter the winds and the waves, that they might have freedom from persecution in the new world. Among the emigrants were Blair, Livingston, Hamilton, and McClelland. Mrs. Livingston accompanied her husband. The voyage turned out disastrously. Storms arose, and contrary winds drove them into Loch Ryan. But again they sailed westward, till they were nearer America than Ireland. Then they encountered fearful storms of wind and rain from the northwest. The swellings of the sea rising higher than mountains hid the midday sun. Their rudder was broken and their sails torn. Leaks were sprung which required them to be constantly pumping. Huge waves broke over the deck and tore up the planks, till at last they concluded it was the Lord's wil1 that they should return. Having changed their course homewards, they made good progress, and on the 3d of November came to anchor in Loch Fergus.

THE EMIGRATION. FROM ULSTER TO AMERICA

There are two outstanding facts in the history of Ulster at this time besides the rise of the linen manufacture--the steady emigration, and the rise of the Secession Church. The latter is a strong proof of the kinship to Scotland, the former is, perhaps, even a stronger proof of the blood which was in her sons, for they left Ulster, as their forefathers had come to it, in search of a more kindly home across the seas. The emigration from Ulster is one of the most striking features of Irish history, and one which had a most marked effect on the vital force of the United States of America, which drew so much of its best blood from the Presbyterians of the north of Ireland. There was nothing to induce the active-minded men of the North to remain in Ireland, and they left in crowds, going away with wives and children, never to return. In 1718, there is mention of "both ministers and people going off." in 1728, Archbishop Boulter states that "above 4200 men, women, and children have been shipped off from hence for the West Indies, within three years." In consequence of the famine of 1740, it is stated that for "several years afterwards, twelve thousand emigrants annually left Ulster for the American plantations "; while from 1771 to 1773, "the whole emigration from Ulster is estimated at thirty thousand, of whom ten thousand were weavers." Thus was Ulster drained of the young, the enterprising, and the most energetic and desirable classes of its population. They left the land which had been saved to England by the swords of their fathers, and crossed the sea to escape from the galling tyranny of the bishops whom

driven out of their settlements, transport themselves, their families, and effects to America, there to meet a more hospitable reception from strangers to their persons, but friends to their religion and civil principles. "The Lord Primate Boulter, who had come from England, and been appointed one of the Lord Justices, in 1728, wrote a letter on the subject of the emigration from Ireland, to the ministry in England, in which he says: "The whole North is in a ferment at present, and the people are every day engaging one another to go next year to the West Indies [i.e., to North America]. The worst is, that it affects only Protestants, and reigns chiefly in the North, which is the seat of our linen industry. "The extent in numerical amount to which this emigration went is far beyond what would be supposed; but it appears on the clearest evidence that from the year 1725 to 1768 the number of emigrants gradually increased from 3000 to 6000 annually, making altogether about 200,000 Protestants. By the returns laid before Parliament in 1731, the total number of Protestants in Ireland was 527,505. Now, of these 200,000 emigrated; so that, making ample allowance for the increase of population between the years 1731 and 1768, we shall still find that one third of the whole Protestant population of Ireland emigrated within that disastrous period.

The spirit of emigrating in Ireland appeared to be confined to two circumstances, the Presbyterian religion and the linen manufacture. I heard of very few emigrants except among manufacturers of that persuasion. The Catholics never went; they seem not only tied to the country, but almost to the parish in which their ancestors lived. As to emigration in the North, it was an error in England to suppose it a novelty, which arose with the increase of rents. The contrary was the fact; it had subsisted perhaps forty years, insomuch that at the ports of Belfast, Derry, etc., the passage trade,

Reformation

AMERICAN IDEALS MORE SCOTTISH THAN ENGLISH

The oppressed and persecuted, therefore, are those to whom mankind owes its greatest social blessings. They ever stand as living witnesses against injustice and tyranny. They are the first to demand reforms. In the days of Rome, they raised the standard of the Cross, around which in due time the men of all nations gathered. Under this standard was erected later the most effective system ever devised by the genius of man for curbing the despots of paganism--a system so well organized, indeed, that when the evils which it was created to destroy had been wellnigh stamped out it gave those evils a new lease on life by introducing their spirit into its own religious polity, resulting in the massacres of the Reformation period.

"But the man behind is Knox. Would you see his monument? Look around. Yes: To this, our own land, more than any other, I am convinced must we look for the fullest outcome and the yet all unspent force of this more than royal leader, this masterful and moulding soul .... Carlyle has said: 'Scotch literature and thought, Scotch industry; James Watt, David Hume, Walter Scott, Robert Burns. I find Knox and the Reformation at the heart's core of every one of those persons and phenomena; I find that without Knox and the Reformation, they would not have been. Or what of Scotland ?' Yea, verily; no Knox, no Watt, no Burns, no Scotland, as we know and love and thank God for: And must we not say no men of the Covenant; no men of Antrim and Down, of Derry and Enniskillen; no men of the Cumberland valleys; no men of the Virginian hills; no men of the Ohio stretch, of the Georgian glades and the Tennessee Ridge; no rally at Scone;

"In the history of Scotland, too, I can find properly but one epoch: we may say, it contains nothing of world-wide interest at all but this Reformation by Knox. A poor, barren country, full of continual broils, dissensions, massacrings; a people in the last state of rudeness and destitution, little better perhaps than Ireland at this day. Hungry, fierce barons, not so much as able to form any arrangement with each other how to divide what they fleeced from these poor drudges; but obliged, as the Columbian Republics are at this day, to make of every alteration a revolution; no way of changing a ministry but by hanging the old ministers on gibbets: this is a historical spectacle of no very singular significance: 'Bravery' enough, I doubt not; fierce fighting in abundance: but not braver or fiercer than that of their old Scandinavian Sea-king ancestors; whose exploits we have not found worth dwelling on! It is a country as yet without a soul: nothing developed in it but what is rude, external, semi-animal. And now at the Reformation, the internal life is kindled, as it were, under the ribs of this outward material death. A cause, the noblest of causes, kindles itself, like a beacon set on high; high as Heaven, yet attainable from Earth ;--whereby the meanest man becomes not a Citizen only, but a Member of Christ's visible Church; a veritable Hero, if he prove a true man!

"This that Knox did for his nation, I say, we may really call a resurrection as from death. It was not a smooth business; but it was welcome, surely, and cheap at that price, had it been far rougher. On the whole, cheap at any price;--as life is. The people began to live: they needed first of all to do that, at what cost and costs soever. Scotch Literature and Thought, Scotch Industry; James Watt, David Hume, Walter Scott, Robert Burns: I find Knox and the Reformation acting in the heart's core of every one of these persons and phenomena; I find that without the Reformation they would not have been."--Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes and Hero Worship, iv.

THE SCOTTISH KIRK AND HUMAN LIBERTY

which, in other countries, was democratic, was, in Scotland, aristocratic. We shall also see, that, in Scotland, the Reformation, not being the work of the people, has never produced the effects which might have been expected from it, and which it did produce in England. It is, indeed, but too evident that, while in England Protestantism has diminished superstition, has weakened the clergy, has increased toleration, and, in a word, has secured the triumph of secular interests over ecclesiastical ones, its result in Scotland has been entirely different; and that in that country the Church, changing its form without altering its spirit, not only cherished its ancient pretensions but unhappily retained its ancient power; and that, although that power is now dwindling away, the Scotch preachers still exhibit, whenever they dare, an insolent and domineering spirit, which shows how much real weakness there yet lurks in the nation, where such extravagant claims are not immediately silenced by the voice of loud and general ridicule.

The English Reformation then, including in that name the merely ecclesiastical changes of Henry as well as the more strictly religious changes of the next reign, was not in its beginning either a popular or a theological movement. In this it differs from the Reformation in many continental countries, and especially from the Reformation in the northern part of Britain. The Scottish Reformation began much later; but, when it began, its course was far swifter and fiercer. That is to say, it was essentially popular and essentially theological. The result was, that, of all the nations which threw off the dominion of the Roman See, England, on the whole, made the least change, while Scotland undoubtedly made the most. (On the whole, because, in some points of sacramental doctrine and ritual, the Lutheran churches, especially in Sweden, have made less change than the Church of England has. But nowhere did the general ecclesiastical system go on with so little change as it did in England.) In England change began from

But in England the Reformation was more than half political. The hatred of priests and popes was more a predominant principle than specialty of doctrine. . . . What kings and Parliament had done in England, in Scotland had to be done by the people, and was accompanied therefore with the

Here, then, we have the direct refutation of Buckle's statements as to the origin of the Scottish Reformation, by four leading authorities on British history, and their opinions are merely confirmatory of the judgment of all observing and unprejudiced men.

Much in the same line with Mr. Buckle's theory of the origin and accomplishment of the Reformation in Scotland is the oft-repeated assertion that the Scottish Church was as relentless and unceasing a persecutor of dissenters as were those of the Papacy or Episcopacy. This assertion, likewise, is not sustained by the facts. Bigoted and intolerant as the Scottish Church became after it was made a part of the machinery of State, its methods were mild and innocuous compared with those of its rivals. The one solitary case where death was inflicted by the authorities for heresy, at the instigation or with the approval of the Kirk, was that of Thomas Aikenhead, who was hanged in 1697 on the charge of atheism and blasphemy against God. While this was a wholly unjustifiable and villainous act of cruelty, it can hardly be classed with those persecutions from which the Presbyterians had suffered. It would seem to belong rather to that class of religious perversities of which the most familiar example was the burning of witches. In this latter diabolism Scotland engaged with perhaps greater zest than either England or Massachusetts. The distinction between the crime of the hanging of Thomas Aikenhead and that of the burning of George Wishart, by the Catholics, or the drowning of Margaret Wilson, by the Episcopalians, therefore, is probably to be found by a contrast of motive rather than of degree; at most it is the difference between fanaticism and tyranny. In the latter cases, the sufferers had denied the authority of the bishops. These prelates aimed at preferment by mixing politics with religion, and could not be wholly sincere or disinterested. George Wishart and Margaret Wilson were slain by them because the bishops could brook no limitations upon their own power. In the case of Thomas Aikenhead, the authority of God had been questioned, and the fanatical zealotry of the ministers permitted the application of John Cotton's law, without the apparent intervention of any personal motives.If such a distinction should at first appear too finely drawn, an examination of the workings of the two principles thus suggested will show that their results are, as a rule, widely different. Indeed, in some aspects, their dissimilarity is almost of equal extent and correspondence with that existing between the two churches of North and South Britain; and the divergence of their ends but little short of that which marks the two opposite principles of democracy and despotism. In New England, where the Calvinistic theory of the supremacy of God and the Bible over man's conscience was at first as fully carried out as in Scotland, a system of democracy was inaugurated which, until its progress became retarded by the union of Church and State, reached a higher degree of perfection than had been the case in any other English community. This system, but for the entrance and long-continued presence of the fatally defective policy of ecclesiastical usurpation in secular affairs, might have developed into an ideal form of government. In Old England, on the contrary, where the authority of the bishops over man's conscience was ever maintained and the theory fully developed by Laud and Sharp and the Stuarts, a highly despotic form of government resulted, from

and entrenched in a position for working further harm to the cause of human liberty. All the legitimate arguments which may be made to justify the overthrow of papal authority in England, apply with thrice-augmented force to sustain the action of the Scottish people in breaking the wings of those ecclesiastical vampires who had been draining the life-blood of Scotland. Nay, the whole force of the argument in favor of the Protestant Reformation of Christendom must be broken before it can successfully be maintained that the action of the Scottish people in uprooting the Episcopal system was inconsistent with their professed devotion to the cause of religious liberty.13

RELIGION IN EARLY SCOTLAND AND EARLY ENGLAND

THE real differences between the religious life of Scotland and that of England are not wholly those of creed and polity, brought about by the Reformation of the sixteenth century. They would seem to go back much farther than that period, and to have given evidence of existence more than nine hundred years before. They may have originated from the radical differences between the ancient pagan mythology of the Druids and that of the Teutons. The religious genius of early Scotland was, of course, largely Celtic, and there is no reason for believing that the more or less complete but very gradual amalgamation of the early race with that of the Norse and the Angle has essentially altered the inherent racial tendency toward emotional fervor and intensity. Going from a warmer climate into the comparatively bleak and northern country of Caledonia, the early Celt doubtless became more "hard-headed," and lost much of that exuberance of emotion which to-day is so characteristic of his cousins in France and Ireland, and, perhaps, also in Wales. His peculiar traits were modified later by the commingling of his blood with that of the Northmen. But his early racial point of view was far distant from that of the pagans who brought the worship of Woden into Britain, and the assimilating influences of climate and intermarriage, even to this day, have not sufficed to break down the barrier between the two cults. Christianity was probably planted in Great Britain long before the Romans left. The first native account we have of its early history there is that of Bede, in his allusions to the conversion (176-190) of Lucius, King of the Britons, and to the establishment by Ninian of the Church of Candida Casa at Whithorn, in Galloway. This foundation is supposed to have been made about the year 397, and Ninian (who died about 432) was therefore the precursor and contemporary of St. Patrick (396-469 ?). More than a hundred and sixty years later, Columba, the Scot, came from the island of Iona to North Britain, and converted the Picts, as Bede tells us in the following passage (Eccl. Hist., bk. iii., ch. iv.):

SCOTLAND OF TO-DAY

In this district are to be found the chief evidences in Scotland of the birth or residence of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Dumbartonshire is the reputed birthplace of St. Patrick, Ireland's teacher and patron saint. Elderslie, in Renfrewshire, is said to have been the birthplace of Scotland's national hero, William Wallace. Robert Bruce also, son of Marjorie, Countess of Carrick and daughter of Nigel or Niall (who was himself the Celtic Earl of Carrick and grandson of Gilbert, son of Fergus, Lord of Galloway), was, according to popular belief, born at his mother's castle of Turnberry, in Ayrshire. The seat of the High Stewards of Scotland, ancestors of the royal family of the Stuarts, was in Renfrewshire. The paternal grandfather of William Ewart Gladstone was born in Lanarkshire. John Knox's father is said to have belonged to the Knox family of Renfrew-shire. Robert Burns was born in Ayrshire. The sect called the "Lollards," who were the earliest Protestant reformers in Scotland, appear first in Scottish history as coming from Kyle in Ayrshire, the same district which afterwards furnished a large part of the leaders and armies of the Reformation. The Covenanters and their armies of the seventeenth century were mainly from the same part of the kingdom. Glasgow, the greatest manufacturing city of Europe, is situated in the heart of this district.

The translation of one of John Knox's religious works was the first book printed in Gaelic, and thus, as in Wales, the Reformation conferred upon the language of the people an importance which it had not possessed before. But whilst in Wales religious zeal, through its manifestation in the pulpit and the press, has contributed in a large measure to keep alive the native idiom, the division of the Highlanders into Roman Catholics and Protestants has resulted in a diminution of the collective patriotism of the people, as it reveals itself in language. Roman Catholics are numerous in the county of Inverness, and it merely depended upon the chief of a clan whether his followers remained true to the old faith or embraced the new. Canna and Eigg are the only Hebrides the inhabitants of which remained Roman Catholics. Those of the larger island of Rum, it is said, hesitated what to do, when the chief of the MacLeods, armed with a yellow cudgel, threw himself in the way of a procession marching in the direction of the Romish church, and drove the faithful to the temple which he patronized. Hence Protestantism on that island is known to the present day as the "Religion of the Yellow Cudgel." But notwithstanding these changes of religion many superstitions survive amongst the people. In Lewis, "stone" and "church" are synonymous terms, as they were in the time when all religious ceremonies were performed around sacred megaliths.

THE NORSE AND GALLOWAY

lands so called have it spelled Inglynstoun, and in another charter by Robert II., it is Inglystoun (Robertson's Index of Charters). Pont, in his map drafted between 1608-20, spells it "Englishtoun," which cannot be accepted, for it is obviously incorrect. The surname of Inglis found in Scotland is the root of this error, as the assumption has been that it is a corruption of "English"; but opposed to this idea is the fact that although several individuals named Inglis are to be found in the possession of lands at an early period, not one of them is styled of Ingliston or Inglystoun. The Inglises of Manner seem to have been the chief family, and they held the lands of Branksome or Branksholm, afterwards possessed by the Scotts (Buccleuch). The Ingliston in West Lothian probably got the name from Inglis of Cra-mond, the first of which family was a merchant in Edinburgh about 1560, the Reformation time. It has also been overlooked that "English" is a distract English surname borne by families in England, and any affinity with it and Inglis has no other basis than some similarity in sound. We still adhere to the same .opinion as given by us in Lands and their Owners in Galloway, that the farms in Galloway called Engleston or Ingleston have nothing to do with the surname Inglis, or as Englishtoun; but were given from the nature or character of the land, and are from the Norse engi for meadow-land, or a meadow, which is also found in Anglo-Saxon as ing or inge, a pasture, a meadow.

FROM BRUCE TO FLODDEN

Another view of the character of James IV. is to be found in the first book of John Knox's History of the Reformation in Scotland. This account is doubly interesting from the light it throws on the religious condition of Scotland at that period. From Knox's history, it will be seen that Protestantism in Scotland originated in Ayrshire and the other counties of the west --ever the most enlightened and progressive part of the kingdom. Knox's account is as follows (the italics are his):

THE BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION

James appointed the Archbishop of Glasgow, chancellor; the Abbot of Holyrood, treasurer; and the Bishop of Dunkeld, keeper of the privy seal. The most influential of the nobles were persecuted, and some of them driven from the kingdom. Thus excluded from the government, the nobles began to show a leaning toward the doctrines . Hating the clergy, they became enraged at the ecclesiastical influence over the king; and as time passed they grew firmer in their adherence to the principles of the Reformation.

noteworthy fact in connection with the history of the Reformation in Scotland that most of its leaders and armies came from the western Lowlands, chiefly from those districts in which Wallace and Bruce had lived and raised their armies more than two centuries before. Especially interesting is this fact to him who studies the history of the transplanted Scot in Ireland and America; for most of the Scottish emigrants to those countfides emigrated from that part of Scotland.

of Ayrshire, John Douglas, Paul Methven, and others. In December, 1557, a number of the nobles came out on the side of the Reformation movement, and joined in a bond, known as the First Covenant, by which they agreed to assist each other in advancing the reformation of religion, in "maintaining God's true congregation, and renouncing the congregation of Satan." Among those who subscribed this document were Archibald Campbell, Earl of Argyle, and his son Archibald (Lord Lorne), Alexander Cunningham, Earl of Glencairn, James Douglas, Earl of Morton, and John Erskine of Dun. The leaders of this movement came to be known as "the Lords of the Congregation."

JAMES STUART, SON OF MARY

JAMES STEWART, Prior of St. Andrews and Earl of Moray, known in Scottish history as the '"Good Regent," was the natural son of James V. by Lady Margaret Erskine, daughter of the fifth Earl of Mar, who afterwards married Sir Robert Douglas of Lochleven. He was born in 1533, and in his infancy was placed under the care of George Buchanan. James Stewart accompanied his half-sister, the young Queen Mary, when she went to France for her education. When the Reformation began, although at first adhering to the party of the queen regent, later (1559), he joined the Lords of the Congregation and soon became the leader of the Protestant nobles.

Early in 1578, Morton resigned the regency. He had never been popular, and his treatment of the Reformed Church lost him the support of its clergy. When the Roman Church was abolished at the time of the Reformation, the bishops and other prelates of that establishment were allowed to receive, during their lives, two thirds of the ecclesiastical revenues, the Protestant Church receiving for its maintenance one third. As the prelates began to die, their offices were filled by clerical agents of Morton and some of the other nobles. These agents being ministers, assumed the titles and were allowed a small part of the revenues of their positions, but handed the bulk of the receipts over to the patrons who had secured their appointment. The Scotch people called them straw bishops, or tulchans-- tulchan being the name applied to a stuffed calf, which at milking time was set in position as if to suck the cow, the cow thus being deceived into giving her milk freely.

THE WISEST FOOL IN CHRISTENDOM

KING JAMES.--" Why, then I will tell you a tale. After that the religion restored by King Edward the Sixth was soon overthrown by Queen Mary here in England, we in Scotland felt the effect of it; for thereupon Mr. Knox writes to the Queen Regent, a virtuous and moderate lady, telling her that she was the supreme head of the Church; and charged her as she would answer it at God's tribunal, to take care of Christ's evangel in suppressing the popish prelates who withstood the same. But how long, trow you, did this continue? Even till by her authority the popish bishops were repressed; and Knox, with his adherents, being brought in, made strong enough. Then began they to make small account of her supremacy, when, according to that more light wherewith they were illuminated, they made a farther reformation of religion. How they used the poor lady, my mother, is not unknown; and how they dealt with me in my minority. I thus apply it: My lords, the bishops, I may thank you that these men plead thus for my supremacy. They think they cannot make their party good, but by appealing unto it; but if once you were out and they were in, I know what would become of my supremacy; for, No BISHOP, No KING. I have learned of what cut they have been, who, preaching before me since my coming into England, passed over with silence my being supreme governor in causes ecclesiastical. Well, Doctor, have you anything else to say?"

SCOTLAND UNDER CHARLES I.

JAMES VI. was succeeded by his son, Charles I., who began his reign at the age of twenty-four. Like his father, he held erroneous ideas concerning the royal prerogative, and like some of his father's descendants who rule in the present day, was firmly convinced that he had been taken into partnership by the Almighty for the purpose of remodelling the universe. It has been said that Charles was incapable of distinguishing between his moral and political rights; possibly an inherited tendency led his narrow Jesuitical mind to assume and to maintain that his political position gave him an unquestionable right to dictate to his subjects the form of their worship. Hating Presbyterianism as intensely as his father had hated it, he was determined on establishing Epispopacy in Scotland and was delayed in this project only by the lack of money. To procure this, in October, 1626, he issued a revocation of all grants of lands by the Crown since the Reformation. This was intended for the benefit of the bishops and clergy, but it naturally aroused feelings of resentment among the nobles whose interests it threatened to invade, many of whom had received grants of Church lands from the Crown. Charles sent the Earl of Nithsdale to propose his plans to the Scottish Parliament, with promises of kingly favor to those who should submit, and threats of rigorous proceedings against those who might refuse.

Charles visited Scotland in 1633, and was crowned at Holyrood on June 18th. He brought with him a little, square-faced, dark-eyed man, who afterwards became notorious as Archbishop Laud, of whom it has been said, "He came in like a fox, reigned like a lion, and died like a dog." Charles was eager to complete the scheme of church polity which his father had begun, and during his presence in Scotland preparations were made for composing a new book of canons and a liturgy. Bishops and archbishops had been for some thirty years forced upon the Church of Scotland. The king and his archbishop thought the time had now come for making the Scots use the Episcopal forms of worship also, thus completing the uniformity between the churches of the two kingdoms. Accordingly, they caused a liturgy or service-book to be prepared for use in Scotch congregations. It was framed by the bishops of Ross and Dunblane on the pattern of the English prayer-book, and submitted to Laud for his approval. It came back with numerous alterations. The canons, as finally revised by Laud and the bishops of London and Norwich, were ratified by the king in May, 1635, and promulgated by him in 1636. They bore little resemblance to any Scottish ecclesiastical rules subsequent to Charles visited Scotland in 1633, and was crowned at Holyrood on June 18th. He brought with him a little, square-faced, dark-eyed man, who afterwards became notorious as Archbishop Laud, of whom it has been said, "He came in like a fox, reigned like a lion, and died like a dog." Charles was eager to complete the scheme of church polity which his father had begun, and during his presence in Scotland preparations were made for composing a new book of canons and a liturgy. Bishops and archbishops had been for some thirty years forced upon the Church of Scotland. The king and his archbishop thought the time had now come for making the Scots use the Episcopal forms of worship also, thus completing the uniformity between the churches of the two kingdoms. Accordingly, they caused a liturgy or service-book to be prepared for use in Scotch congregations. It was framed by the bishops of Ross and Dunblane on the pattern of the English prayer-book, and submitted to Laud for his approval. It came back with numerous alterations. The canons, as finally revised by Laud and the bishops of London and Norwich, were ratified by the king in May, 1635, and promulgated by him in 1636. They bore little resemblance to any Scottish ecclesiastical rules subsequent to the Reformation. Charles also signed a warrant to the Privy Council on the 18th of October, 1636, which contained his instructions concerning the introduction of the new liturgy, and the Council in December issued a proclamation ordering all the people to conform to the same. The royal proclamation ordered the new service-book to be observed in all the churches on Easter day, 1637, but, on account of popular opposition, the authorities postponed the date of its introduction. This postponement merely served to heighten the feeling against it.

SCOTLAND UNDER CHARLES II. AND THE BISHOPS

not fear any ecclesiastical censure. The king ruled the aristocracy, and the aristocracy in reality nominated almost all the members of the Commons. Both Houses of Parliament, according to custom, sat together in the same chamber; and, in violation of law, the members did not subscribe the National Covenant. Several sittings of this Parliament had to be adjourned because Middleton was too drunk to keep the chair; and many of the other members were often in a similar state of intoxication. This Assembly, ready to do anything the king desired, set about its work at once. All legislation for reformation, between 1638 and 1650, was declared treasonable, although the acts in question had been duly sanctioned by the sovereign. The government of the Church was now left entirely in the hands of the king, who soon exercised that power to overthrow Presbyterianism. Then arose the most merciless persecution ever endured by any Church in Great Britain.

IRELAND UNDER THE TUDORS

IT has been said of Henry VIII. that the world gained more benefit from his vices than from his virtues. His failure to persuade the Pope to grant him a divorce from Catherine of Aragon led to the downfall of the Roman Church as the State religion of England. In its stead, Henry erected the Church of England, and in 1531 caused Parliament to declare him the supreme head of the Church. Three years later his Church was completely separated from that of Rome, the people accepting their new pope without demur. As has already been pointed out, the change of law produced in England a change of religion, which assumed the Protestant form not so much through the influence of the principles of the Reformation, as through the determination of Henry to make Anne Boleyn his wife. As the result of the Reformation in Scotland, a change of religion produced a change of law and of government; and the Scotch reformers purged their Church from its obvious errors, and stripped her of all forms and ceremonies. In England the form of the new religion arose from a silent compromise, the English Church being left as much like the Romish as possible, in order to get the people to acquiesce in the supremacy of the king. Hence it has never been as successful as the Church of Scotland in throwing off the bonds of feudalism.

IRELAND UNDER THE TUDORS

Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, and was succeeded by James VI., King of Scotland. In Scotland, the Protestant Reformation had produced a vast effect on its inhabitants. John Knox, a man of learning, eloquence, and fearless courage, had led the reformers to victory. A system of education was provided for the people. The principles of Protestantism sank into their hearts and changed the habits of their lives. In two generations men of clay were transformed into men of iron. An ignorant and changeable people became the foremost race in the world, possessed of all the qualities necessary to render the Celts of Ireland subject to the authority of England. Hitherto, English colonists had been absorbed by the Irish. But now another description of colonist was to settle in Ulster, capable of holding the Celt in subjection, and keeping the "back door" of access to England closed against all her enemies.

STEWART'S AND BRERETON'S ACCOUNTS OF THE PLANTATION OF ULSTER

My near relation to the deceased author renders it improper for me to give you an ample character of him; but if you desire any further information concerning him, some care shall be taken to obtain it from more proper bands. His father was minister in Dunagor, in the county of Antrim, before the rebellion of the Irish in the year 1641, and among the first Presbyterian ministers who laboured in these parts after the Reformation; and my uncle, being then a young man, had the opportunity of being an eye witness to some of the most remarkable passages which he has inserted in these papers; which, if they give you any satisfaction in the reading, or can serve you in any of the good purposes you have in view, it will be my great satisfaction. However that be, you may depend on the exactness of the copy which I now send you by the influence and at the earnest desire of my dear brother, the Rev. William Livingston, who appears very solicitous to serve you, and joins with me in desiring the favour that you would allow it a place among your valuable Collection which you have made, and are still making for the service of the church.

a deplorable person--yea, it was turned to a proverb, and one of the expressions of disdain that could be invented to tell a man that Ireland would be his hinder end. While thus it was, and when any than would have expected nothing but God's judgment to have followed the crew of sinners, behold the Lord visited them in admirable mercy, the like whereof had not been seen anywhere for many generations. For among them who had been permitted to preach bv the bishops, there was one Mr. Glendinning, a man who never would have been chosen by a wise assembly of ministers, nor sent to begin a reformation in this land, for he was little better than distracted--yea, afterwards did actually distract--yet this was the Lord's choice to begin the admirable work of God, which I mention on purpose that all men may see how the glory is only of the Lord's in making a holy nation in this profane land, and that it was not by might nor by power, nor by man's wisdom, but by my Spirit, says the Lord. This Mr. Glendinning had been bred at St. Leonard's College, in St. Andrews, and finding little place in Scotland when things were so carried as to satisfv laudable order in the church, he runs to Ireland with the rest, and having been ordained a minister, is placed in a parish near to Antrim, called Oldstone.

CHURCH RULE IN IRELAND AND ITS RESULTS

The majority of the Long Parliament were Puritans, who desired to reform the Church on the basis of Presbyterianism. But several sects of enthusiasts had of late sprung up in England. Of these the most powerful were the Independents, who held that every congregation was a self-governing community, owning no subjection to either bishop or presbytery. Their chief leader was Oliver Cromwell, and they were as powerful in the army as Presbyterians in the Parliament. In political matters they aimed at a "root and branch "reformation, desiring to establish a commonwealth on the ruins of monarchy, while the Presbyterians desired to merely limit the king's power.

Vikings

THE SCOTS AND PICTS

"Though we know less of his diplomacy in the states to the northward of the Danelaw, we can see that AElfred was busy both with Bernicia and the kingdom of the Scots. The establishment of the Danelaw in Mid-Britain, the presence of the pirates in Caithness and the Hebrides, made these states his natural allies; for, pressed as they were by the vikings alike from the north and from the south, their only hope of independent existence lay in the help of Wessex. Of the first state we know little. The wreck of Northumbria had given freedom to the Britons of Strathclyde, to whom the name of Cumbrians is from this time transferred. The same wreck restored to its old isolation the kingdom of Bernicia. Deira formed part of the Danelaw, but the settlement of the Danes did not reach beyond the Tyne, for Bernicia, ravaged and plundered as it had been, still remained English, and governed, as

THE NORSE AND GALLOWAY

subdued the Hebrides, inclusive of the Isle of Man. Thorstein the Red, son of Olaf the White, King of Dublin, and Earl Sigurd, subdued Caithness and Sutherland, as far as Ekkielsbakkie, and afterwards Ross and Moray, with more than half of Scotland, over which Thorstein ruled, as recorded in the Landnamabok.About 963, Sigurd, son of Earl Hlodver, and his wife Audna (the daughter of the Irish king Kiarval), became ruler over Ross and Moray, Suther-land and the Dales (of Caithness), which seems also to have included old Strathnavar. Sigurd married, secondly, the daughter of Malcolm (Malbrigid),called King of Scotland. He was slain at Clontarf near Dublin, in 1014.By his first marriage he left issue, Sumarlidi, Brusi, and Einar, who divided the Orkneys between them. By his second marriage he had issue, Thorfinn, on whom King Malcolm bestowed the earldom of Caithness. To quote from the introduction, Njal Saga, by Dasent [Saga of BurntNjal, George Webbe Dasent, 1861], "Ireland knew them [the Vikings] Bretland or Wales knew them, England knew them too well, and a great partof Scotland they had made their own. To this day the name of almost everyisland on the west coast of Scotland is either pure Norse, or Norse distorted, so as to make it possible for Celtic lips to utter it. The groups of Orkney and Shetland are notoriously Norse; but Lewis and the Uists, and Skyeand Mull are no less Norse, and not only the names of the islands them-selves, but those of reefs and rocks, and lakes, and headlands, bear witness to the same relation, and show that, while the original inhabitants were not expelled, but held in bondage as thralls, the Norsemen must have dwelt and dwelt thickly too, as conquerors and lords."The foregoing extract gives a description which investigation corroborates. The blank in the history of Galloway after the termination of the Strathcluyd kingdom is now fully met. The only difficulty is to determine at what date Galloway became separated from Strathcluyd. Earl (Jarl) Malcolm, who lived near Whithorn in 1014, is the first Norseman specially named. His place of residence is believed to have been Cruggleton Castle, of historic renown in after-times. Eogan the Bald, who fought at Carham, and died in 1018, was the last King of Strathcluyd. We have thus only adifference of four years, and certain it is that Earl Malcolm was in Galloway,and evidently located there as one in possession. In the Burnt Njal we findthe following: "They (Norsemen) then sailed north to Berwick (the Sol-way), and laid up their ship, and fared up into Whithorn in Scotland, andwere with Earl Malcolm that year." . . .Another point certain from close investigation is, that Jarl (Earl) Thor-finn (son of Sigurd II.) ruled over Galloway in 1034, the time mentioned, and continued to do so until his death in 1064 or 1066 [1057]. In 1034 he was twenty-seven years of age. In Scottish history we learn nothing ofhim, although in possession of a large part of Scotland. During his lifetime he ruled Galloway from Solway to Carrick. The Flateyjarbok contains the Orkneyinga Saga complete in successive portions: and in Munch's Historieet Chronican Manniae, Earl Thorfinn is distinctly mentioned. It is also related that the Earl Gille had married a sister of Sigurd II., and acted as his lieutenant in the Sudreys. He is said to have resided atKoln, either the island of Coll or Colonsay; and when Sigurd fell at Clontarf in 1014, he took Thorfinn, the youngest son, under his protection, while the elder brothers went to the Orkneys, and divided the northern dominions

THE NORSE AND GALLOWAY

races were those of over-lords and tributary, or whether they merely became fellow-pirates. At all events the connection cost the Galloway men the respect of other Celtic communities. The Irish chronicler, MacFirbis, declares that they renounced their baptism and had the customs of the Norsemen, and it is in the ninth century that they first appear mentioned as Gallgaidhel, or foreign Gaels, taking with the Vikings part in plundering and devastation.

THE SECOND AND THIRD ALEXANDERS TO JOHN BALIOL

"Castles, which had begun to be erected in the reign of Malcolm Canmore, were rapidly multiplied by those Norman barons and their followers, who, as we have already seen, obtained large grants of land from the Scottish monarchs. Various strongholds along the seacoasts, supposed to have been built by the Vikings, as well as cells or religious houses, are known to have previously existed. But it was chiefly under the protection of the baronial

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